Introductions & Conclusions

Introduction Paragraphs set the tone for papers. The introduction includes two important parts of a paper: the hook at the beginning and the thesis statement at the end. Besides these two things, introductions should consist of background information or common knowledge to set the state for what is to come. It is important to have a strong introduction to write an impactful essay.

Hook

• Grabs the reader’s attention & clues them in on what they are going to be reading about.
• Can be a statistic, opinion (for argumentative essays), question (caution, may want to ask professor), or any statement that resembles a conversation starter, and then transitions into a load of information about said topic.

     Example Hook:

Imagine buying a home in 1990 for the price of a used car today—an astonishingly different reality compared to the soaring home prices and complex financing options of the current market.Top of Form

Thesis Statement

• Tells the reader the main points that will be written in the following paragraphs.
• Tells the reader the order of the paragraphs by topic.
• Informs the reader of your stance or position on the subject.

Example Thesis Statement:

The housing market today differs significantly from 1990, with notable changes in home prices, financing options, and housing availability, reflecting shifts in the economy, technology, and demographic trends.

*more information on thesis statements can be found under Writing a Thesis Statement resource

Conclusion Paragraphs are where you wrap up what has already been said. Summarize your main points and end with a final statement, which should state the same idea thesis statement in the introduction. It is necessary to avoid adding new information into the conclusion, as well. Any noteworthy information should already be included in the body paragraphs, so if you find yourself needing to add more to a paper, do not add on to the conclusion if it does not need it. 

Watch out for

• Personal pronouns. (ex. “Today I will tell you about…”)
• Overshot statements. (ex. “People everywhere are under this false impression…”)

Examples provided by OpenAI. (2024). ChatGPT: Retrieved from https://www.openai.com/chatgpt

Resource created by Chloe Daugherty 2024​​​​​​​

Writing a Thesis Statement

The sentence that is at the end of your introduction paragraph will set the tone of the paper and tell the reader what the point of it is. Professors will stress the importance of thesis statements because these sentences state your stance on your subject and your reasons.

• Your prompt/rubric so you know what you are supposed to write about.
• Specific ideas that you feel should be mentioned in your essay.

Where to begin

• The first step is normally the hardest step of any process, which includes writing. When you have to write a thesis statement, you will want your statement to include the main points that support your claim. Here is an example of how to accomplish that: 

Thesis statement: Smoking cigarettes is bad because they cause many health problems.

• Clearly, the main point is that smoking cigarettes is bad. To someone who does not know about the specific health risks, there is still a question of why they are bad.
• This is a step in the right direction, still, because now you can break down your reasoning.

Thesis statement: Smoking cigarettes is bad because they are harmful, addictive, and bothersome to those who do not smoke. 

• Already this statement is more elaborative than the first, but it is still lacking a few details. Who should be reading an essay about the side effects of smoking?
• In a paper about the dangers of smoking, there is a namable audience specifically for this paper. The audience should be acknowledged in a thesis, so it is clearer what the purpose of the paper is.

Thesis statement: Smokers should be precautious when continuing their habit because cigarettes have been linked to damaged organs, intolerable cravings, and unbreathable air for others.

• Now that I have listed what my paper is about and who it is for, I can use the order in which I put my topics to structure the following body paragraphs.

Resource created by Chloe Daugherty 2024

Body Paragraphs

Think of your body paragraphs as the toppings in between two slices of bread. The slices of bread are the introduction and the conclusion, and in between there will need to be something of substance. So, imagine your thesis is the list of items that will be on your sandwich.

Thesis Ex.)  Cartoons remain popular due to their colorful characters, iconic tunes,  and inspiring stories.

Now there are three toppings on the sandwich: characters, tunes, and stories. In this order, you will need to write a topic sentence that focuses on the specific topic.

Topic Sentence Ex.) Cartoon characters are not only made out to be eye-catching and original looking, as they also personify loveable or comical characteristics.

The following paragraph should include evidence that supports this idea. Some evidence would include examples of cartoon characters, the impacts of characters, and many more reasons why animated characters look interesting.

Evidence Ex.) Matt Groening, the writer of the popular show “The Simpsons”, suggested that the characters be colored bright yellow to attract the attention of viewers.

Additionally,

Paragraphs should not be longer than 6-8 sentences, at most. If your paragraphs look long and blocky, break them up. A good time to break paragraphs is when changing to different time periods of a certain topic, or when introducing a new example.

Resource created by Chloe Daugherty 2024

Outlining

The first step to outlining for a paper is to ask yourself three questions:

• What is the assignment?
• Why is the assignment important?
• Who is my audience?

Once these questions are officially answered, it is time to move to the next step in the process, outlining! Outlining breaks down the parts of a paper into separate but cohesive blocks that section off main points of paragraphs. There are four stages of an outline:

• The Alphanumeric stage, where it is simply symbols and lists the number of paragraphs.
• The Topic Stage, where the topic sentences are created, and the structure of information is formed.
• The Full Sentence stage, where sentences are written in places where they fit most appropriately.
• The Creation stage is the end of the outlining step and beginning of drafting. This is when the paper is first written completely.

Formal Outlining Principles

• Indent based on importance. With every intention, use a symbol to indicate its role in the paper.
• Try to stay as focused on the topic as possible, and that every main point has a connection that can be linked throughout a series of paragraphs.
• Use parallel headings for equally general topics. For example, if you are writing a paper focused on the ocean, it would not be a good idea to make one body paragraph about the Atlantic Ocean and then a separate one about the Pacific Ocean.

Formal Outlining Key

Roman Numerals (I,II) = Paragraphs, Introduction, Body, and Conclusion

Capitalized Letters (A,B) = Important parts of paragraphs, such as the thesis & topic sentences

Arabic Numerals (1,2) = Supporting evidence, such as in-text citations or examples

Lowercase Letters (a,b) = Smaller details that further elaborate on topic

Alphanumeric Outline: This is the outline a writer creates when first thinking about what to write on a paper. It states the thesis statement and is a visual of the shape and sequence of an essay.

Resource created by Chloe Daugherty 2024

Hooks

At the very start of any paper, the writer must choose a hook that will not only grab the attention of the reader, but also one that informs the reader about what they are going to be reading. Many students consider the hook to be one of the more difficult parts of a paper, since there are a handful of ways to start a paper. This will be a quick guide to the types of hooks, and some additional pointers, too.

Types of Hooks

The type of paper you are writing may determine the type of hook you choose to start off with. For example, for a research paper on pollution, you may feel inclined to begin your essay with a statistic or fact about the matter.

Statistic/Fact Hook

• Relates to the topic of paper
• Supports your stance in the rest of the paper
• Informs the reader about certain subject

Example:

According to Clear Air’s website, “Facts & Stats on Air Pollution,” air pollution has become increasingly threatening to humans and their health over the last few decades (2021).

Quote Hook

Similar to a stats/fact hook, using a quotation as a hook will signal to the reader what they are going to be reading about in your paper. Quote hooks should also

• Relate to paper’s topic
• Be in alignment with your position in writing
• Tells the reader what has been said about your topic

Example:

               “Air pollution originates from numerous sources of emission, both natural and anthropogenic, with the latter becoming globally dominant since the beginning of industrialization” (WHO, p.1, 2021)

Metaphor Hook

Metaphor hooks are meant to display creativity and start the reader’s thought process down the track of what you are writing about. Unlike the previously mentioned hooks, there is no need for citations, simply put your own words at the beginning.

• Relate to topic of paper
• Exhibit your stance on your topic
• Sparks interest and thought in your reader about your topic

Example:

               Today’s levels of air pollution have become threatening to areas around the world, looming in every corner, slowly deteriorating peoples’ health.

What to Avoid

Because it is the first sentence of your paper, the hook needs to be strong, and clearly stake your thoughts/views/beliefs on your topic. Without a good hook, the rest of your paper will be difficult to take seriously. There are a few common mistakes that students will make when writing their hook:

• Question Hooks; though they were allowed and encouraged in high school, questions as hooks are not looked at too fondly in college. They sound gimmicky, almost like the start to an infomercial, and make you sound unsure about your topic.
• Unrelated Hooks; Even if you plan to introduce background information on a topic in your introduction, do not put it in the hook. The hook should serve as an umbrella, encompassing the entire paper’s topic, then supporting context or evidence should come after.
• Long Hooks; The hook sentence of a paper should never go over two lines. If you already dump so much information onto a reader, you will tire out your point before they even make it to your thesis. Your hook should lay strong foundations for the rest of your paper, but should not take over the first paragraph.

Example Outline

Thesis Statement: The importance of trees lies within their ability to provide air, capacity to home many different animals, and supply of food and nutrients.

1. Introduction

1. Hook that relates to trees, the environment, etc.
2. Thesis Statement about trees

2. First Paragraph- topic sentence about oxygen
   1. Supporting evidence, examples, and explanations
      1. Details about supporting sentences.
      2. Details about supporting sentences.
   2. Transition Sentence
3. Second Paragraph- topic sentence about habitats provided by trees

1. Supporting evidence, examples, and explanations

1. Details about supporting sentences.
2. Details about supporting sentences.

2. Transition Sentence

4. Third Paragraph- topic sentence about the food supply benefitting from trees

1. Supporting evidence, examples, and explanations

1. Details about supporting sentences.
2. Details about supporting sentences.

2. Transition Sentence    

 V.  Conclusion

1. Summary of main point & Restatement of thesis
2. Final message, lasting impression of paper sentence       

Topic Outline: With an idea in mind of what your paragraphs will need in order to fit in your paper, you can begin putting together the sequence of topics you are going to write about.  

Example Outline

Thesis Statement: The importance of trees lies within their ability to provide air, capacity to home many different animals, and supply of food.

1. Introduction
   1. Roles of trees in environment
      1. History of trees.
      2. Benefits of trees.

2.  Possible natural recyclers
   1. 1. Need more trees.
      2. Examples of nature resolving manmade disasters.

II.        Trees and oxygen.

1. Photosynthesis
2. Ability to turn polluted air into clean air

1. Effects of planting trees.
2. Urgency of planting trees.

3. Relationship between trees and wild animals.

1. Different animals that live in trees

1. Advantages of healthy environment
2. Reasons why deforestation should stop occurring so often               .

       B. Alternatives to deforestation

*Repeat this process for paragraphs IV*

V. Conclusion

1. Summary of entire paper with restatement of thesis sentence.
2.  Final take on topic and lasting impression for the reader/audience.

Full Sentence Outline: Now that you can see the order you are writing your topics in, you can switch from shorthand to writing fully thought-out sentences.

Example Outline

Thesis Statement: The importance of trees lies within their ability to provide air, capacity to home many different animals, and supply of food.

1. Introduction
2. Trees are the main providers of oxygen, which is an essential part of survival.

1. By using the sun’s rays and nutrients from the ground, trees create air for us to breathe.
2. Trees’ ability to recycle polluted air into fresh, breathable oxygen is a sign of hope for the world in its current state.

1. Planting trees in low-quality air areas would do immense wonders for the environment.
2. Time is of the essence, so trees should be planted as soon as possible to better the chances of clean air for future generations.

1. 66 million tons of pollution entered the United States’ atmosphere just recently in 2022 (US EPA 2023)
2. Trees take several years to grow, so the sooner they are planted, the better.

4. Along with the air they give to the earth, trees shelter many wild animals, and give humans materials to build homes with.

1. From animals as large as bears to insects as small as inchworms, trees are the main habitats within the main habitats.

1. There are several species of animals that live almost entirely in trees; birds, for example, mostly live in trees. 
2. Deforestation is the leading reason for the endangerment of precious animals.

*Repeat this process for paragraphs IV*

V. Conclusion

1. Trees provide air for living things to breathe, shelter to live in, and nutrients to live off.
2.  The trees that take care of the world should receive care in return.

Resource created by Chloe Daugherty 2024

Visual Essay Organizer

If you need an organizer for a paper, feel free to print this resource!

Hook: _______________________________________________________________________________

Background Knowledge: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Thesis Statement: _____________________________________________________________________________________

First Topic Sentence: ­­­­__________________________________________________________________

Supporting Details: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Transition: ___________________________________________________________________________

Second Topic Sentence: ________________________________________________________________

Supporting Details: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Transition: ___________________________________________________________________________

Third Topic Sentence: _________________________________________________________________

Supporting Details: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Transition: ___________________________________________________________________________

Wrapping-up Statement: _______________________________________________________________

Summary of Points:

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Final Message: __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

When working with a Peer Mentor or by yourself, write down possible ideas for your paper here!

Brainstorming Area

Summarizing Vs. Paraphrasing

Students often find themselves confused about the difference between summarizing and paraphrasing. Here is a quick breakdown to help you better understand.

Summary

Summaries are meant to briefly explain/describe another work without the use of excessive details. For summarizing, only the significant points should be linked together in short but orderly manner.

Example Summary:

Original Text:

In the realm of artificial intelligence, machine learning algorithms have revolutionized various industries by automating tasks that previously required human intervention. These algorithms, built on mathematical models and vast datasets, excel at pattern recognition and decision-making. For instance, in healthcare, machine learning is being used to diagnose diseases from medical images with high accuracy, potentially reducing human error and improving patient outcomes. Similarly, in finance, algorithms analyze market trends and trading patterns to make investment decisions in real time, optimizing portfolio management strategies. Despite their capabilities, the ethical implications of AI continue to provoke debate, particularly concerning issues of bias in algorithms and the impact on jobs traditionally performed by humans. As AI technology advances, stakeholders must navigate these complexities to ensure responsible and equitable deployment across various sectors.

Summary of Original Text:

The passage discusses the transformative impact of machine learning algorithms in diverse industries such as healthcare and finance. These algorithms leverage mathematical models and extensive data to automate tasks previously handled by humans, such as disease diagnosis and investment decisions. While AI promises improved accuracy and efficiency, ethical concerns regarding algorithmic bias and the displacement of human jobs remain contentious issues. Stakeholders must address these challenges thoughtfully to foster responsible and equitable integration of AI technologies across sectors.

Paraphrase

Paraphrasing is similar to summarizing because it involves expressing the same idea as the original passage but includes specific detail and same sentence structure as the original. The main difference is the rewording of what the writer you are paraphrasing has said without replicating or plagiarizing them.

Example Paraphrase:

Original Text:

Global warming poses a significant threat to ecosystems worldwide, leading to rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events. These changes impact biodiversity, food security, and human health, highlighting the urgent need for global cooperation to mitigate climate change.

Paraphrase of Original Text:

global warming is a major concern for ecosystems globally, causing higher temperatures, changes in rainfall, and more frequent extreme weather. These shifts affect biodiversity, food availability, and public health, underscoring the critical necessity for international collaboration to reduce the effects of climate change.

Top of Form

Bottom of Form

Examples provided by OpenAI. (2024). ChatGPT: Retrieved from https://www.openai.com/chatgpt

Resource created by Chloe Daugherty 2024​​​​​​​

Popular VS. Scholarly Sources

College papers will often require students to cite at least one popular source and a scholarly source. Here is a quick breakdown of the difference:

Popular Source

• Broad audience; no specific audience is acknowledged or spoken to in popular sources
• Language is not incredibly formal or scientific
• Typically found on the internet or in easily accessible books/magazines
• Shorter in length than a scholarly source
• Purpose is to broadly examine and discuss a certain event
• Citations are not prioritized and rarely used
• Written by journalists, freelance writers, and contributors
• Published regularly and quite often

Popular Source Examples

Book: "Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind" by Yuval Noah Harari.

Journal Article: "The Role of Neural Networks in Artificial Intelligence" by John Doe, published in "Neural Computation".

Newspaper Article: "New Study Reveals Impact of Climate Change on Arctic Wildlife" from The New York Times.

Magazine Article: "The Science of Sleep: How to Improve Your Sleep Quality" from National Geographic.

Website: World Health Organization (WHO) website for global health statistics.

Interviews: Interview with a climate scientist on the effects of deforestation.

Scholarly/Peer Reviewed Source

• Specified audience that is knowledgeable in specific topic that is covered by source
• Language consists of scientific and technical terms that require background knowledge in certain field
• Usually accessed through journals with subscription, or library databases
• Length of source is hefty and large amounts of information can be found from only one scholarly source
• Includes citations along with entire Works Cited or a Reference Page at the end
• Focuses on statistics and methods related to the specific topic
• Authors are specialists/experts in certain area in which they are writing
• Publication process is lengthier than popular because it must be peer reviewed before publishing

  Scholarly Source Examples

Peer Review Journal Article: "The Role of Neural Networks in Machine Learning" by John Smith, published in "Journal of Machine Learning Research".

Academic Book: "Social Theory: Its Origins, History, and Contemporary Relevance" by Anthony Giddens.

Conference Proceeding: Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association.

Research Reports: "Global Trends in Renewable Energy Adoption" report by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA).

Literature Review: A Meta-Analysis of Studies on the Effects of Exercise on Mental Health" published in a psychology journal.

Academic Website & Database: JSTOR, PubMed, IEEE Xplore, and Google Scholar.

Resource created by Chloe Daugherty 2024​​​​​​​

Deductive Vs. Inductive Reasoning

The ways in which people draw certain conclusions & then validate them in their own minds is called reasoning. There are two types of reasoning: Deductive and Inductive. Here is a quick breakdown of the two.

Deductive Reasoning

This type of reasoning stems from an already established principle or general idea. Think of it as starting off zoomed out and then slowly zooming in on smaller details and aspects. The purpose of deductive reasoning is to apply already learned knowledge to form conclusions in new situations.

Deductive Reasoning Example:

My friend is allergic to cats + I own two cats = my friend cannot come to my house.

*This is an example of deductive reasoning because it puts together to facts (friend’s allergies, my possession of cats) to form a final conclusion (friend would have allergy attack at my house)

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning is the opposite of Deductive; instead of starting big and working towards small details to form a specific conclusion from, inductive reasoning begins at recognizing the small details, and working your way up to draw a broad and general conclusion. Inductive Reasoning does not always ensure a correct answer but constitutes critical thinking and associations for people.

Inductive Reasoning Example:

The bus arrived late on Tuesday + I have to be at work by 9 a.m. on Tuesdays = I need to call an Uber on Tuesday mornings.

*This is an example of inductive reasoning because the bus being late one day is a small detail but combined with the other small detail of work at 9, it is concluded that another mode of transportation will be needed on Tuesdays.

Examples provided by OpenAI. (2024). ChatGPT: Retrieved from https://www.openai.com/chatgpt

Resource created by Chloe Daugherty 2024​​​​​​​

Identifying Logical Fallacies

A Logical Fallacy is a seemingly reasonable and logical statement that is actually incorrect and deceives the reader. These normally arise in arguments where a person skews facts and data in order to trick others into believing they are sound arguments. Here is a breakdown of the types of logical fallacies.

The Strawman Fallacy: A misrepresentation of one person’s argument by the other person involved. This happens when a person twists what someone said and inflates their meaning to sound more extreme than their initial statement.  

Strawman Fallacy Example:

If someone argues that we should have stricter regulations on pollution to protect the environment, and another person responds by saying, "My opponent wants to shut down all businesses and destroy the economy," they are committing a strawman fallacy.

*The second person is misrepresenting the original argument to make it seem extreme and unreasonable, even though that wasn’t the original point.

Either/or: Presenting only two options in an argument, which diminishes the possibility of more choices available to a person or group.

Either/or Example:

"You’re either with us, or you’re against us."

*This presents only two choices, implying that there’s no room for neutrality or other perspectives. In reality, there could be various ways to support or critique the issue without being strictly for or against it.

Slippery Slope Fallacy: Claiming that irrational impacts will occur due to one action which will be held responsible for all issues that follow. Top of Form

Slippery Slope Example:

"If we allow students to redo their assignments to improve their grades, next they’ll want to retake entire courses just to get better grades. Soon, they’ll expect to pass without any effort at all."

*This argument assumes that allowing assignment redos will lead to increasingly extreme and problematic outcomes, without providing evidence that this will actually happen. It exaggerates the potential consequences to avoid addressing the original issue directly.

Hasty Generalization Fallacy: When someone makes an all-encompassing statement while ignoring certain facts or evidence that disprove their claim.

Hasty Generalization Example: "I met two people from New York, and they were both very rude. Therefore, all people from New York must be rude."

*In this case, the conclusion about all New Yorkers is based on only two individuals, which is not enough evidence to make a general statement about an entire population. The fallacy lies in making a sweeping generalization from a limited and unrepresentative sample.

Argument From Personal Incredulity Fallacy: Denying facts because they do not align with a person’s assumptions and already set beliefs.

Argument From Personal Incredulity Example: "I can’t believe that climate change is caused by human activities. It just seems too complicated for people to have such a big impact. Therefore, it must not be true."

Stacking the Deck Fallacy: Only choosing to present evidence that supports your claim while intentionally ignoring evidence that invalidates your point.

Stacking the Deck Example: Imagine a debate on whether a new diet is effective. One person says, "This diet is great because it helped me lose 10 pounds in a month," but they don’t mention that it has also led to negative side effects for others or that it’s not sustainable long-term.

*In this case, the individual is stacking the deck by presenting only the positive outcome while ignoring or omitting any evidence that might challenge the effectiveness of the diet. This creates a biased view that unfairly supports their position.

“No True Scotsman” Fallacy: When someone redefines the criteria for membership in a group to exclude counterexamples that would otherwise challenge their argument.

“No True Scotsman” Example: Imagine someone claims, "No true vegetarian would ever eat meat." When someone points out that they know a vegetarian who occasionally eats meat, the person responds, "Well, then they’re not a true vegetarian."Bottom of Form

*In this case, the person is shifting the definition of what it means to be a vegetarian to exclude the counterexample, rather than addressing the validity of the counterexample itself. The fallacy lies in altering the criteria to avoid refuting the argument.

Examples provided by OpenAI. (2024). ChatGPT: Retrieved from https://www.openai.com/chatgpt

Resource created by Chloe Daugherty 2024​​​​​​​